(Written by the owner of this blog)
The 21st Century, which is known as Knowledge Age brought complexity in the world of workforce. The environment is constantly changing that is attributed to the transmission, consumption and interpretation of information, which introduces a new paradigm in the workplace (New Zealand Council for Education Research [NZCER], n.d. Husley, 2010). Institutions and companies are always in search of an individual who is capable of adapting to change. This phenomenon leads to the notion that the basic skills of reading, writing and arithmetic (identified as 3Rs) are not enough to secure a place in an increasingly competitive marketplace (Hulsey, 2010).
According to Dwyer (1998 is cited Reich) in today’s generation “the new coin of realm is learning.” Continuous learning is fundamental in the development of knowledge and skills beyond the basic 3R elements. The source of lasting competitiveness depends on the quality of knowledge (Hussain & Lucas, 2004). The ability to use the knowledge is the determinant of one’s success, which only indicates that staying on the game in the Knowledge Era depends on knowledge management.
The knowledge management discourse is important in moving up from 3Rs to 4Cs, which constitute of critical thinking, communication, collaboration and creativity (Bellinger, 2004; Hulsey, 2010). It is highly desirable for an individual to possess the 4Cs because anyone who has it will lead to the company’s advancement. This implies that any practitioner must engage in a career development activity that will nourish 4Cs of knowledge. One of the career development methods that can be used is the reflective practice. Reflective practice, defined in literature as the process of career exploration can assist any employee in cultivating the 4Cs, and that is the focus of this paper. To be able to explore this, it is important that the first part of this paper will be discussing the significance of developing the 4Cs in the 21st Century.
THE IMPORTANCE OF 4Cs IN THE 21ST CENTURY
According to Kreitzberg and Kreitzberg (2009), recent research shows that all companies are in urgent need to develop critical thinking in their workplace. In the study conducted by the Conference Board, Corporate Voices for Working Families, the Partnership for 21st Century, Skills and the Society for Human Resource Management reveal that 78 percent of companies in the world are favouring critical thinking as the major knowledge an individual should have in the new millennium because it is vital on the company’s success (Kreitzberg, Reilly & Kay, 2010; Kreitzberg & Kreitberg, 2009).
One good example is Dell Computer, after conducting mixture of skills test (that includes critical thinking) to approximately 500 prospective employees; their productivity rate skyrocketed to 40 percent growth (Kreitzberg, Reilly & Kay, 2010; Petrik 2010). This only implies that critical thinking ability is crucial to remain marketable and prosper in the today’s tough business environment.
Another issue that flourishes in the Knowledge Age is the capacity of an individual to collaborate within the team. The real world problems in the present generation become too complex to solve by a single person, the trend in the workplace shifts from competition to collaboration. Domik and Fischer (2011) explains that to respond to the challenges it is important to build a socio-technical environment wherein people with different background and opposing views gather together to form a uniform idea in one discipline.
Meanwhile, communication becomes more important than ever because of skill mobilisation and migration. It is a requirement in the workplace that an employee must have good interpersonal skills coupled with sympathetic listening. These skills are essential in dealing with people from different background. Often times there are communication barriers because of multicultural differences (accent, beliefs, point of view). Aside from this, it is also expected that all employees know how to use the technology with etiquette.
Another buzzword in the Knowledge Era according to Carson
Improving Critical Thinking Skills
Kreitzberg and Kreitzberg (2009) pointed out that although the demand for critical thinkers is high, only few potential employees possess the said skill. However, the good thing is, critical thinking ability can be developed. Since critical thinking is associated to “stating the problem and describing the situation”, one good way to boost the capacity to think critically is by means of reflective practice (Sawis, 1995).
The notion of reflective practice is commonly associated with the problem (Loughran, 2002). Reflective practice involves the cognitive process of reflective thinking that stems from mental difficulty followed by an act of inquiry to resolve the uncertainty (Leitch & Day, 2000 as cited in Dewey 1933; Loughran, 2000). Act of inquiry is congruent to problem finding while resolving the doubt is to problem solving. The axis point of both problem finding and problem solving skills is to resolve the existing problem (Leith & Day, 2000 as cited in Arline, 1990; Csikszentmihalyi & Sawyers, 1995). Problem finding and problem-solving skills both develop critical thinking ability.
Researchers consider problem finding as a prerequisite of the actual process of problem solving. Puccio, Murdock and Marie (2011 as cited in Jenkins & Perkins, 1997) explains that within the course of problem finding the behaviour, attitude and thought is engaged toward the ideation or generation of the idea. The main purpose of ideation is to identify the origin of the dilemma by means of “problem discovery, problem construction, problem expression, problem posing, and problem identification” (Puccio, Murdock and Marie, 2011, p. 160).
In reflective practice, problem finding is congruent to reflection-in-action, which is defined by Sloan (2000, p 148) as a method of “on-the-spot surfacing, criticizing, restructuring and testing of intuitive understandings of experienced phenomena.” For example, in a tutorial session, the tutor touches the shoulder of an autistic adult student. As a result, the student pinches the hand and grabs the hair of the tutor. In response, the tutor did nothing but to distant herself from the student. The course of this action uncovers the tutor’s background knowledge on dealing with special students. At the same, it also reveals the “cognitive process” behind the reaction of the tutor within the situation (Ryan, 2010, p. 105).
The ability to respond to surprises within the course of reflection in action involves critical thinking. Ryan (2010 as cited in Legault, 2006) defines critical thinking as “the technique by which we make good decisions and produce good work and is a nuanced and interwoven mental process involving bits of emotion, observation, intuition, and critical reasoning (p. 105).” The tutor may be hurt and may get furious (emotion and intuition). But since, the tutor attentively deals with the student; she immediately identifies the cause of such behaviour (observation). Upon reflection in an action using analysis and assessment, the tutor realises that her body language initiate the student’s violent behaviour, therefore it is her fault and there is no need to get angry about it (critical reasoning). The tutor’s immediate reaction to that specific circumstance entails the use of critical thinking.
Meanwhile, problem solving according to Meador (1997) and Cherry (as cited in Reed, 2000) is a higher level of thinking skill that surmounts any difficulty. Goldstein and Diller (1987) explain that problem solving takes place when an individual desires to achieve a specific goal. Problem solving unravels the incongruity between the actual and desired outcome (Meador, 1997). It constitutes analysis, reasoning and planning.
In relation to reflective practice, problem solving is compatible to reflection-on-action. The outcome of reflection-in-action is modified in reflection-on-action by means of “reflective conversation” on the actual situation that happened at the workplace (Altrichter, Posch & Somekh 1993, p. 203). It is a contemplation to own practice that is verbalised by means of reflective practice tools that include journal, portfolio and the likes.
The progress in the workplace performance is recorded in the reflective practice tools. This documentation that consists analysis and evaluation of the practice outcome (reflection-in-action), gives way to the development personal theories of an action (Beard & Wilson, 2007). Theory will redirect the practitioner to the possible solutions to solve the problem. Applying the solutions in the practice environment manifests improvement on reasoning. Reasoning and the target goal of improving the outcome are both fundamental aspects of critical thinking (Moore
Such that is Meador’s (1997 as cited in Maker & Niler, 1996; Swartz & Perkins, 1990) examination on critical thinking stating that it is “the critical evaluation and examination—actual and potential—of beliefs and courses of action…to recognise the ambiguities (p.70).” Evaluation is to reflective-on-action and examination is to reflective-in-action while that of finding solutions is to improve the practice is a stance of recognition to ambiguities.
Developing Communication Skills
Although reflective practice is always associated to the centrality of one’s self towards practice, the role of the significant others plays crucial role in modifying one’s self-efficacy. For this reason, reflective practice involves different levels of communication, which is termed by Yetim (2004) as a meta-communication process. Nimmo (1980) defines meta-communication as a communication about communication, which only means that reflective practice covers different levels of communication that constitutes of intrapersonal, interpersonal and mass communication.
Intrapersonal communication also known as intracommunication is associated to thinking process that occurs within the inner self. Since intrapersonal communication is started with the conversation with the self, it is seen as the most basic level of communication, and therefore the foundation to all levels of communication. Emitt and Gorse (2003) expound this by explaining that:
These conversations are the thought processes and reflective thinking that occurs within our minds and is seen as the root of other classifications of communication. As such it is an important element in our decision-making process (p. 46)
Fundamental to developing the practice is the reflective thinking, which is considered as a self-regulatory process under the control of the practitioner (McAlesee, 1998). It involves the process of analysing and evaluating the past events related to practice and the desired outcome to improve the practice in the workplace. For Leith and Day (2000 as cited in Deway, 1933, p. 178) in reflective thinking the practitioner is engaging in a cognition that includes metaphors of ambiguity like “doubt, hesitation or mental difficulty”.
This will motivate the practitioner to reflect in the present-action (reflection-in-action) to be able to find basis for the doubt and resolve it by thoughts into an action. Furthermore, Leitch and Day (2000 as cited Dewey, 1933; Goodman, 1984; Loughran, 1996) clarify this by stating that reflective thinking is a “deliberate and purposeful act of thinking, which centres on ways of responding to problematic situation (p.180).”
The gap between the present practice and desired performance in the workplace manifests the intrapersonal communication because this idea sends message to the practitioner’s brain. The message stimulates the brain to find the problem. Emmitt and Gorse (2003 as cited in Burgoon, 1994, p.46) further state that, “it is obvious that people think, reflect, and have internal dialogues with themselves.”
Lynn (2004) relates internal dialogue to internal voices or self-talk going inside the brain that affects the system of an individual. As the practitioner is engaging in the process of reflection-in-action there are certain voices that appear over and over again to evaluate the correctness of a particular action. If something is not working properly like in the case of tutor mentioned earlier then the practitioner reflects in the action-present. Therefore, approving and disapproving an action-present (reflection-in-action) on the spot by means of reflection manifests internal dialogue.
Concurrent with the internal dialogue is the processing of data that involves ideation, encoding and decoding (Emmitt & Gorse, 2003; Lyn, 2004). Ideation is the idea or thought being conveyed while encoding is the manner in which message is being expressed; and decoding is the processing that occurs after receiving the message (Cherie & Gebrekidan, 2005; Emmitt & Gorse, 2003). In reflective practice, ideation starts with the uncertainty towards the present practice and compared it to the desired practice. The message will process by the brain and will lead to reflection-in-action. The message is encoded through action. The action-present will then decode in the brain through reflection to evaluate it (See Figure 1).
Self-evaluation of a present-action is crucial in developing the practice. To ensure the efficiency of the knowledge transfer it is important that the reflection-in-action is verified by the ‘significant others’ (Ghaye, 2010). In this stage, reflective conversation is necessary. Reflective conversation, which is not synonymous to intrapersonal communication, happens during the reflection-on-action in one-on-one situation or in the bigger group (Ghaye, 2010).
Interpersonal communication also known as intercommunication is defined in literature as the interaction between two people, which sometimes referred to as “dyad” (two) (Emmitt & Gorse, 2003). In reflective conversation the role of the mentor is important to have clear understanding towards the purpose of an action. For example to reinforce the tutor’s action towards the student’s violent behaviour (which was mentioned earlier), right after the incident the senior tutor or teacher will give feedback and explain that although it is right to distance herself from the student, it is better to use a Makaton sign language to initiate the authority. Through this feedback the tutor will learn new information.
Verbal communication with the use of spoken language plays a vital role in giving feedback and clarifying the feedback. Verbal communication of spoken language should synchronise with the non-verbal communication. Non-verbal communication plays a vital role on the interaction between the practitioner and the mentor because facial expression and speech intonation signifies the openness to share and receive information.
Mass communication on the other hand is conveyed through reflection-on-action tools like journal, electronic journals, portfolio and electronic portfolio wherein the result of the reflection is being communicated to a wider group of audience. The writing ability, which is also a form of a verbal communication, is put into practice using these reflective tools.
Fosters Collaboration
The discourse of reflective conversation makes the reflective practice a collaborative effort. In an attempt to verify the accuracy of the action that takes place within the reflection-in-action, the practitioner feels the need to recognise the role of the “significant other” (Ghaye, 2008). Significant other in sociology is the person who has a great influence in one’s behaviour. In the practitioner’s stance, the significant other is the reflective mentor.
According to Bulman and Schutz (2004 as cited in Daloz, 1986; Reid 2000), the role of the reflective mentor (someone who is senior or expert in practice) is to authenticate and acknowledge the practitioner’s current knowledge. For instance, the neophyte tutor begins her first tutorial session. The reflective mentor can support the tutor by sharing her own experience in relation to dealing with students. This can be done by briefing the tutor before the tutorial session and giving feedback afterwards.
Mutual understanding and respect is essential to fully develop the practitioner’s performance in the workplace. The reflective mentor should recognise the practitioner’s personal work style. On the other hand, practitioner should learn how to adjust this to be able to gain new knowledge and information. This is what Callan’s (2006, p. 10) called a “strong emphasis on collaboration”.
This kind of collaboration is termed by James, Dunning and Connolly (2006) as a collaborative practice that includes collaboration, reflective practice and focus on the primary task. They added that this is just like the Borromean Knot diagram where all the elements are interconnected just like the relationship between the reflective conversation, significant other and accuracy of the action. In the absence of any elements, the main goal of reflective practice is unattainable. For this reason, reflective practice becomes an effort of collaboration. (See Figure 2)
Promotes Creativity
Exploring one’s experience towards the practice provides an individual the opportunity to see the bigger picture of self, the work environment and the global issues related to profession. Being aware on one’s own weakness as well as the system and program of the company that needs improvement and latest trend can lead to creativity and innovation. Literature defines creativity as the process of creation of new knowledge while the innovation is the practical application and impact of creativity.
According to Williams (2009) in the course of “applying observation to practice, observation, documentation, contemplation, analysis, synthesis, evaluation, and experimentation or improvisation” new ideas in a form of theory occurs to the practitioner’s mind. Patton (1995 as cited in Schon, 1985) explains that the formation of new theory is the product of creativity in respect to action and thoughts that happened in the course of reflective practice.
In the practitioner’s commitment to process, prove, apply and implement the theory, innovation follows. Innovation as a result of reflection from work practice is defined by Bick and Graham (2010) as a sustainable way of improving the practice because it is beneficial for both the practitioner as well as the community.
The diffusion of innovation that materialised during the period of reflection-on-action and reflection-in-action lies in collaboration. Promoting innovation will be practically impossible without the latter. In the course of reflection on the present (reflection-in-action) and past (reflection-on-action) actions, the practitioner can generate a theory of personal practice. Participation of other stakeholders is needed to validate and develop the theory. Upon the successful validation, it is important that the theory is introduced, so that other practitioners will be benefited. In this manner, the knowledge transfer is assured. Knowledge transfer is important in building a strong foundation of the company.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
According to Bolton (2010 as cited in Toffler; Osterman & Kottkamp, 2004) “the illiterate of the 21st century will not be those who cannot read and write, but those who cannot learn, unlearn and relearn.” In reflective practice, the existence of career ambiguity motivates the practitioner that there is a genuine need to learn for new information. Acknowledging this means readiness to unlearn the present work practice that will lead to relearning. This process requires critical thinking, communication skills, collaboration and creativity (4Cs). Therefore, any individual who uses reflective process as a career development will be equipped with 21st Century literacy skills that are necessary to survive in today’s complex generation.
FIGURES
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