COMPETENCY-BASED TRAINING IN KNOWLEDGE-BASED ECONOMY

(Written by the owner of this blog)

INTRODUCTION

Providing a world-class education by having a knowledge-individual in a workforce is seen as an important ingredient in achieving the knowledge-based economy (KBE) (Gonzci, 1996; Wood, 2003 is cited Becker).  This is the reason why the new economic agenda, known as economic rationalism injected to higher education system a market style environment with culture of enterprise and excellence (Chappel, 1998 is cited Pusey & Marginson; Taylor, 1999; Wood, 2003).

According to Wheelahan (2007) because of this pressure, Competency-based training (CBT) is incorporated to vocational education and training (VET) in 1980s and 1990s with a mission to produce an economic functioning individual through practical learning in a real-life context. In a competency-based training, a competent performance is measured by a specific skills and outcome (Cunningham, n.d.).

The objective of this paper is to reflect the writer’s experience undertaking VET course under the CBT approach. She finds VET fall short in providing her useful knowledge to survive this contemporary complex world.  After spending money, time and effort she is still part of the 52 percent VET graduates who do not actively participate in Australia’s economic activity because they are either unemployed, underemployed or outside the paid workforce (NCEVR, 2010).

Because of this, the writer argues that CBT is ineffective approach in producing a knowledge-individual for a knowledge-nation.  This assumption can be attributed to the atomistic and mediocre nature of CBT that leads to its incongruity to the very nature of KBE.

The first part of this paper will discuss CBT as an atomistic approach to learning. The second part will tackle the mediocre nature of CBT.  Then the third part will tackle the contradictions between CBT and KBE. And finally, this essay will analyse how the University of Wollongong’s Faculty of Education might respond effectively to this challenges.

Competency-based training is atomistic

According to Gonczi (1996), presenting knowledge in a practical approach using key competencies is a deconstruction of the reality within the “real world” (Gonczi, 1996).  CBT’s mission to offer learning in a “real-world” context is no doubt a good intention. But it doesn’t reflect the reality because the reality is that the “real world” is a “complex world” requiring intricate skills. 

This is in accordance with Cornford (1995) analysis, saying that CBT is lacking in learning theory and background literature. Wheelahan and Gavin (2005 is cited Bhaskar 1998) supported this claim stating that:

This is a very fragmented, atomistic and instrumental view of knowledge… Knowledge is not and cannot be always about prediction of outcomes… and this certainly does not describe the world of work or any aspect of the social world. Knowledge is about understanding (p. 9).

Edwards and Usher (1994 in Mckay 2003) share the same view, stressing that CBT controlled the knowledge and understanding of the learner because its framework is narrowly prescriptive to learning.

Another missing link to the CBT, according to Strachan (1998 in Sunderland and Graham 2008) is the emotional aspect of learning that stems to its economic nature.  He added that: “the rational in economic rationalism comes from the philosophy where it means guided by reason as opposed to emotions (p. 62)”. 

Australia is a very multicultural workforce wherein different nationalities from different countries are pitching in to its economic activity. Being assessed as just ‘competent’ at the end of the training is a vague measurement of the writer’s readiness.  The writer needs a detailed feedback of competency — proficient to some extent and level.

According to National Centre for Vocational Education, CBT has been successful in teaching procedural knowledge and routine problem-solving skills (Murray, 2009 is cited NCVE).  If CBT’s purpose is to educate in a real-life context it should not be routinary because real life is a social life that needs spontaneous involvement (Ostrow, 1996).

                                                                                                  

Competency-based training: A culture of Mediocrity

Australia has led to a narrow, reproductive form of education because of the competency-based training in the vocational sector, according to educators. This form of training may look efficient in the short term, but it would lead to stagnation in the longer term through lack of diversity and change (McKay, 2003).

On the other hand, Wallace (1996 is cited Porter) and Usher, Bryant and Johnston (1997 in McKay 2003) both agreed that CBT could lead to stagnation of the learner’s ability to climb the ladder of success. It is due to the fact that achieving success requires holistic development of competence and expertise.

CBT on the other hand is too fragmented and superficial approach to learning that gives little attention to understanding (Bradford, 2001; Harris et al, 1995 is cited Hager, 1992 et al).   

CBT’s generic skills and controlled outcome suppress the learner’s ability to reach her fullest potential (Gonczi, 1996; Wheelehan, 2003). CBT is locked into training for current industry trend and there is no preparation for analysis or improvement of the status quo. (Stevenson, 1993, p.98). Thus, not encouraging achievements and requiring learner to demonstrate specific outcome encourages mediocrity rather than excellence. (Harris et al, 1995 is cited McGill; McKay, 2004).

Competency-based training: Incompatible to Knowledge-based Economy

In modern Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) economies, “New Economy” is attainable through fuller recognition of the place of knowledge and technology (OECD, 1996; Sang, 2002). This view is expounded by Hwang and Gerami (2006) and Sang (2002)) saying that in KBE, knowledge is regarded as a central foundation in strengthening economic structure through technological development and skilling the labour force in the highest possible level.

Sang further explains that the best result of KBE can be achieved through the synergy of codified and uncodified knowledge (Sang 2002). Codified or explicit knowledge is identified by Sanchez (2000) as an articulating knowledge while uncodified also known as tacit is an informal knowledge that require shared activities.

The Know-how and know-why are codified knowledge while the know-what and know-who are uncodified knowledge (OECD, 2006; Sanchez, 2000; Sang, 2002). For this reason, providing a world-class education through research and development (R&D) sees as an important ingredient in achieving the KBE (Gonzci, 1996; Wood, 2003 is cited Becker).

Even though CBT is the frontier of vocational training in propagating the culture of excellence, it is incongruent to KBE in so many ways.  CBT is defined by Australian Chamber of Commerce and Industry (2009 in Guthrie) defined CBT as:

…training that places primary emphasis on what a person can do as a result of the training (the outcome), and as such represents a shift away from an emphasis on the process involved in training (the inputs).  It is concerned with training to industry specific standards rather than an individual’s achievement relative to others in the group (p.5).

First, transforming VET into market style environment is different from creating a learning market. McKay (2004) describes the market style environment in vocational education as an education in “convenience store”. The learner is “… just a customer purchasing a bite-sized modularised and pre-packaged learning material. (McKay, 2004 p. 206)”

In comparison, the OECD refers to learning market as the knowledge market wherein provider and user are exchanging information and knowledge (Davenport & Prusak, 1998; Hjelmervik, 2001; Simard 2000; Steward, 1996). Learning market encourages free sharing of limitless information, wherein the border between the provider and the user is disappearing (Wood, 2003).

Second contrasting point is that the top priority of VET is to respond to the needs of the industry. Making education as a secondary concern (Wheelahan, 2007 is cited Gooze). This is contrary to the view that the first-class education is the cutting edge in KBE (Wood, 2003 is cited Becker).

Another distinction is that CBT relates to specific skill profile of an industry rather than information economy (Wikipedia; Wood, 2003). In KBE, knowledge is the primary raw material and source of economically valuable information.  Even in the field of customer service, in-depth knowledge plays a vital role in increasing productivity improvement (CRRI) and Centre for Research & Learning in Regional Australia (CRLRA) (2000)  .

In addition, CBT’s point of view in producing a highly-skilled individual is different to OECD’s definition. For CBT, producing a highly-skilled individual is through training focusing on competency in occupational skills whereas OECD’s highly-skilled individual is someone who is a knowledge-person; and able to participate in research and innovation (Chappel, 1998 is cited Pusey & Marginson; Taylor, 1999; Wood, 2003). Therefore, a highly-skilled individual is a knowledge-individual.

Again, know-how, know-who, know-what and know-why is the fundamental knowledge in KBE (OECD, 1996; Sang 2002). This is also the finding in the 4^th Knowledge Cities of the World Summit, stating that the marriage of theoretical and practical knowledge matures the knowledge-based development (KCWS, 2011). On the other hand, CBT is focusing in real-world context with practical training, practical relevance, practical activities and practical assessment disregarding the benefit of theoretical foundation (Tippelt & Maximilian, 2003; KWS, 2011).

Although Australia’s standard of living is a determinant of becoming a knowledge-based nation, it is certainly not the only factor. This only implies that knowledge, skills and competence must be integrated to produce a highly-skilled individual who can participate in research and innovation. Again, combination of codified and uncodified knowledge is important in achieving a knowledge-based economy.

Triangulation of progressivism and liberalism: A call for new vocationalism

The advocates of CBT claim that competency-based training’s refuge is that this is the building block of Australia’s policy on lifelong learning (Swalger, 1994).  Lifelong learning is defined by the Department of Education Training and Workplace Relations as:

The…policy agenda is built on assumptions about the importance of skills in the new economy. Almost all industrial sectors are increasingly ‘knowledge-based’ and economic returns are obtained from a range of ‘intangible’ inputs, one of which is workers’ skills. Participation in education and training is increasing and economic rewards are flowing to people with high skills (Section 2.1).

With this definition of lifelong learning, it looks like that purpose of CBT is just to alleviate unemployment, enhance employability skills of the young people by skill and upskilling.  Then lifelong learning in Australian context is not functional anymore because the issue now is not about skilling and upskilling—it is about producing a knowledge-worker who is cognitively, manually and attitudinally capable (CRRI & CRLRA, 2000).  If CBT is the building block for lifelong learning therefore CBT is now obsolete.

Of course it is undeniable that CBT being a progressivism advocate has strengths of its own because a student learns through practicality—a quick way of getting a qualification and employability skills (Blake et al, 2001;Hodkinson, 1991).  CBT is the vocational schools’ weapon in opposition to the liberal education.  In vocational education, according to Hodkins (1991), knowing how is more important than knowing what.  

In a complex world of globalisation the competition is fierce that requires strong will, guts and knowledge foundation (China’s National Defense, 2010). Companies judge the applicant according to what she knows to gauge how she knows.  Seeking for an employment with just the practical skills is no different in going in a battle without ammunition. 

That is why the writer suggests that liberal education must be included in the VET’s curriculum because globalisation brought complexity, diversity and rapid change.  Through an in-depth study, liberal approach to education prepares an individual to the wider world of complexity (Association of American Colleges and Universities).

This point of view is not suggesting the elimination of progressivism because it is the core foundation of vocational education.  What the writer merely suggests, is that the triangulation of the progressivism and liberalism of education that will lead to the formation of new vocationalism.  Alliance of progressivism and liberalism is needed to combat the challenges of the complexity of this globalised world. This idea, also encourages University of Wollongong Faculty of Education to conduct research based on this idea and create a new vocational curriculum for the VET sector in Australia. 

Conclusion

In an analysis on The Knowledge-Based Economy: Implications for Vocational Education and Training: A Review of the Literature, the Centre for Regional Research & Innovation (CRRI) and Centre for Research & Learning in Regional Australia (CRLRA) (2000) suggest that modifying the present policy is fundamental because “…formation of a new generation of knowledge workers cannot be achieved simply by established educational and training structures, institutions and programs… (p.34)”.

The writer shares the same view that if VET is really committed in assisting Australia on its quest to be a knowledge-based economy, it is about time that CBT will undergo a major re-engineering that is appropriate to the needs in 21^st Century.

The focus of CBT still underlies on skilling the individual.  Skilling an individual in a country where there is a skill-shortage like Australia probably has been proved to be an effective approach 20 years ago. But the reality two decades ago is not the reality now.  Because the reality is from that time on—the world changes in a drastic manner wherein being skilled is not enough.

Even being highly skilled in order to compete more effectively is not the issue anymore.  An individual must obtain a more complex range of cognitive, social, emotional and behavioural resources as what the business enterprise needs. In this demanding world, jobs require not just manual or cognitive intelligence, the larger issues underlie in the attitude.

This perspective is not different from that of Houghton and Sheeham  (cited Oman 1996) saying that:

What flexible organisations need most from education systems is not so much investment in the production of skilled but narrowly defined specialists, or a lot of investment in vocational training; but much more investment in the production of people with broad-based problem solving skills and with the social and inter-personal communication skills required for teamwork, along with the skills and attitudes required for flexibility (p. 21).

Such that is the assumption of Drucker (1999 in CRRI and in CRLRA, 2000) stating that:

A widely held belief is that they will need the intellectual resources to be self-managing, to engage in continuous learning and to master new skills and behaviours in order to meet the ever changing needs of more dynamic product and labour markets (p. 5).

Suffice to say that the major determinant of the future of Australia’s prosperity depends on how vocational education and training tackle the challenges brought by the emergence of knowledge-based economy.   Producing a knowledge-individual for a knowledge-economy is an intricate process involving broad cognitive, manual and attitudinal education wherein atomism and mediocrity have no space.  Definitely CBT is not the solution for this because continuous use of CBT is synonymous to living in a deconstructed reality. And if that happens Australia will be left behind.

REFERENCE

Centre for Regional Research & Innovation (CRRI) University of Western Sydney &Centre for Research & Learning in Regional Australia (CRLRA). (2000).  The Knowledge Based Economy: A Review of the Literature. Retrieved from http://trevorcairney.com.

Chappell, C. (1998). Changing TAFE in new times. University of Technology Australian  Journal of Teacher. Education 23 (2) Retrieved from  Australian Journal of Teacher Education.

Chappell, C. (1998).  Teacher’s identities in new times faculty of education university of technology. (Master Thesis Abstract, University of Technology, Sydney). Retrieved from http://www.aare.edu.au/98pap/cha98382.htm.

Considine, M., Simon, M., Sheehan, P. et. al. (2001). The comparative performance of Australia as a knowledge nation:  Report to the Chifley Research Centre  Considine. Chifley Research Centre. Retrieved from http://eprints.vu.edu.au/15895/1/15895.pdf.

Cornford, I. (1995, November). Competency-Based Training: An Assessment of Its Strengths and Weaknesses by NSW Vocational Teachers. Paper presented at the AARE 25th Annual Conference Hobart, Australia. Retrieved from Australian Association of Research Organisation.

Gonczi A and Hager P (2010), The Competency Model. In: Penelope Peterson, Eva Baker, Barry McGaw, (Editors), International Encyclopedia of Education.  8, pp. 403-410.  Retried http://www.andrewgonczi.com.au.

Gonczi, A. (1996). Reconpetualising competency-based education and training: with particular reference for education for occupation in Australia Doctor of philosophy. (Doctoral Dissertation, University of Technology, Australia). Retrieved from http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/dspace/bitstream/handle/2100/303/01

OECD (2004). Developing highly skilled workers Canada OECD.  Retrived from OECD Canada.

Haygel, P. & Hyland, T. (2003). Vocational education and the training development strategies. In  Blake, N.  et. al. (Eds). The blackwell guide to the philosophy to the philosophy of education. pp.281-288. Retrieved from Google Book.

 

Hwang, J. & Gerami, M. (2006).  Analyis of investment in knowledge inside OECD countries.  International Journal of Human and Social Studies, 1 (2), 99-100. Retrieved from Waset Org.

Hodkinson, P. (1991). Liberal education and the new vocationalism: A progressivism partnership. Oxford Review of Education. 1 (17). Retrieved from National Library of Austrialia [03054985].

Hjelmervik, O. (2001, February). Innovation in the knowledge-based economy: A process model for knowledge creation and sharing. OECD High-level Forum on Knowledge Management. Copenhagen, Dennmark. Retrieved from OECD.

Kell, P. (1997).  Across Borders and States of Globalising Education.  Education Australia. 36. pp. 6-8. Retrieved from University of Wollongong Online Resources.

Quinn, T.J. (n.d.).  The competency movement, applied linguistics and language testing: some reflections and suggestion for possible research agenda. Melbourne Papers in Language Testing. (55-56). Retrieved from Language Testing and Research Centre University of Melbourne.

Sang, K.L. & Gibson, D. (2002, November). Towards knowledge-based economy in Korea. Int. J. Technology, Policy and Management. 2(3) 201-205.  Retrieved from University of Texas Publications.

Schwalger, S. (1994). Competency based training: Opportunities for interactive multimedia. In C. McBeath and R. Atkinson (Eds), Proceedings of the Second International Interactive Multimedia Symposium, 499. Perth, Western Australia, 23-28 January. Promaco Conventions. http://www.aset.org.au/confs/iims/1994/qz/schwalger.html.

Tippelt, R. & Amoros, A.  (2003) Capacity Building International Germany Technological Cooperation, System Development and Management in Vocational Training Division. Retrieved from http://star-www.inwent.org/starweb/inwent/docs/Lehrbrief_01_engl.pdf

Vaile, M. (2000). Australia and knowledge economy. The Economist Intelligence Unit. Retrieved from Trade Minister.

Wheelahan, L. (2006, July).  Bernsteinian and realist synthesis to critique instrumental and constructivist theories of knowledge & learning’. Paper presented at 4th International Basil Bernstein Symposium,  Rutgers University, Newark, New Jersey.  Retrieved from Academia.

Wheelahan, L. (2002). How Competency-Based Training Locks the Working Class Out of Powerful Knowledge: a Modified Bernsteinian Analysis. Retrieved from Academia

Wood, J. (2003). Australia: an under performing knowledge nation. Journal Intellectual Capitall.  4 (2),  Pp 1-12. Resource University of Wollongong Online Resources.

LIBERAL VOCATIONALISM AS NEW VOCATIONALISM: MEETING THE CHALLENGE OF THE 21ST CENTURY GLOBALISATION THROUGH CURRICULUM CHANGE IN VET?

(Written by the owner of this blog)

Abstract The dawning of the 21st Century is characterises as the Knowledge Age because of the global knowledge competition intensified by skill mobilisation, migration and the economic discourse of knowledge-based economy.  This is the era wherein knowledge is the determinant of personal and national success. This paper examines the capacity of VET’s competency-based curriculum to produce future knowledge workers who are globally competitive.  This is attainable by liberalising vocational education.

INTRODUCTION

Globalisation is now on its new dimension. The world has moved away from Industrial Age and shifted to Knowledge Age (New Zealand Council for Educational Research, [NZCER] 2010). In comparison to the 20^th Century according to Schröttner (2010), the 21^st Century world’s global landscape becomes more complex and competitive than ever.

The Knowledge Age, according to Warner (2009), is a paradigm shift in societal dynamics that gives a person the greater freedom in the global knowledge collaboration—a phenomenon that can be attributed to knowledge dissemination intensified by information technology. Skill mobilisation and migration break all the borders and intensify the global competition (Calderon, 2009; New Zealand Council for Educational Research [NZCER], 2010; Rotermund, 2009; Warner, 2006). The concept of knowledge-based economy wherein knowledge and economic growth are intertwined compels aspirants like Australia to import knowledge worker from the global talent pool.

Because of this phenomenon the demand for highly skilled worker shifts to knowledge worker. (Cogburn, 2003 as cited in Kenney & Florida; Martin, 1994; Woods, 2003).  Knowledge becomes the major determinant on one’s personal and national advancement (Wood, 2011). It lies on the kind of preparation an individual should have and education becomes more important than ever before. 

This concept of knowledge worker is the “source of anxiety” for the higher education sector because the available structure of learning for preparing future knowledge worker is either pluralistic or atomistic. And since that, competency-based curriculum (CBC) is being criticised for being atomistic, Vocational Education and Training (VET) did not escape this challenge.  In relation to this, Wood (2011) warns that any entity that will not support the cultivation of knowledge necessary to survive the 21^st century will fall behind. Ultimately, the question is what must VET do, to keep up with this challenge.  To answer this question, this paper will explore the topic, Liberal Vocationalism as new vocationalism:  Meeting the challenge of 21^st Century globalisation through curriculum change in VET?.

                                                                                       

SHIFT TO KNOWLEDGE WORKER: THE CHALLENGE FOR A NEW WAY OF LEARNING

According to Howard (2007 as cited in Fink, 2007) and Drucker (2009) preparing future knowledge workers require an education with considerable amount of theoretical and practical knowledge.  Foundational and explicit knowledge are the benefits of theories while practical learning provides applied and tacit knowledge.

Foundational knowledge and explicit knowledge are synonymous with each other.  Foundational knowledge is the background knowledge associated with the theory that explains everything about the subject matter (International Council for Higher Education, n.d. as cited in Fink, 2003).  It involves two forms of knowledge—knowing what the phenomenon is and knowing why it exists.   Foundational knowledge can easily be transferrable through books, research paper and other forms of communication thus, making it explicit. Both give a person the power to think critically and logically.

On the contrary, applied knowledge is tantamount to tacit knowledge; it is about knowledge application of knowing how and knowing who.   Applied and tacit knowledge are both unspoken that can only be transmitted by doing and activates the foundation and explicit knowledge. It also teaches an individual to have emotion and intuition as a result of personal interaction with the environment.  But in the absence of foundational/explicit knowledge, applied/tacit knowledge will be vague. As Smith (2001) explains that, “workers, who lack adequate education and training, or explicit knowledge, struggle to keep up. They rely on their common sense and intuition, or tacit knowledge, to get through the day.”

Alliance of foundational/explicit knowledge and applied/tacit knowledge foster the development of the foreground of knowledge skills known as critical thinking, creativity, innovation, practical, production and ethics (Gilbert, 2008, Warner, 2006, Rotermund, 2009).  Applied/tacit knowledge is to practical knowledge skills while creativity, production and innovation can be executed by doing.  But then again, the quality of creativity, production and innovation still depends on the foundational/explicit knowledge.

Meanwhile, ethics, which is define in literature as a system of moral principles in respect to culture, religion, work and professions, can be nurtured through theoretical and practical knowledge (e.g. code of ethics of Plumbing Industry Association of South Australia, Retail Marketing Code of Conduct etc.).  Critical thinking, a higher form of knowledge and synonymous to logical thinking, analytical and problem-solving, can only be acquired through foundational/explicit knowledge.  Critical thinking determines the significance and meaning of such actions. Other foreground of knowledge skills will be irrelevant without critical thinking.

The foreground of knowledge skills lead to the creation of new knowledge—a ground-breaking knowledge that will separate from other existing knowledge.  Therefore, creating a knowledge worker lies on the synergies and full range of knowledge (Gallegos, 2000; Srikantha, 2002). In the absence of one form of knowledge, education will remain a partial model of learning and ineffective (Centre for Regional Research & Innovation [CRRI] & Centre for Research & Learning in Regional Australia [CRLRA], 2000).

The complexities brought by the concept of knowledge worker, according to Berlin’s Federal Institute for Vocational Training President John Rau (2002), “makes it necessary to continue developing and refining all vocational training”. Likewise, Wood (2011) explains that this is the reason why higher education sector including VET being one must work hard to provide adequate knowledge needed to produce future knowledge worker. And since, CBC is focusing on the applied/tacit knowledge or learning by doing, there are doubts if vocational sector can produce graduates who can survive the complex world of globalisation (Tjerk, 2009; Wheelahan, 2007).

CBC IS OLD FASHIONED FOR THE 21^ST CENTURY: A CALL FOR CURRICULUM CHANGE

Competency-based curriculum was introduced into the VET’s system during the pinnacle of Industrial Age.  As a result, vocational sector embraces their new vocationalism, which is to educate and train to supply the needs of the industry. Thus, the basis for the competencies for Certificate I, II, III, and IV courses, labelled “breadth, depth and complex” in nature, include verbs like to demonstrate, perform, receive and send messages, assess, record, take, interpret, analyse and identify; which all manifest applied/tacit knowledge.

As discussed earlier, the tacit knowledge in the absence of explicit knowledge makes a partial model of education that makes it atomistic.  Applied/tacit knowledge underpins foundational/explicit knowledge.  They should go together to make a holistic model of education and training for the Knowledge Age.  In absence of one, both applied/tacit and foundational/explicit knowledge will be vague.

This is in accordance with Cornford (1995) analysis, saying that CBC is lacking in learning theory and background literature. Bradford (2001) and Harris et al (1995 as cited in Hager et al, 1992) also view competency-based curriculum as  a superficial approach to learning that gives little attention to understanding.

In competency-based curriculum, learners are offered with pre-packaged modules, which McKay (2004, p. 6) describes as “bit-sized learning materials”.  In that module, activities are outlined using verbs like observe and read. Followed by instructions such us write what you have observed and read, then apply what you have observed and read. This approach makes competency-based curriculum as prescriptive, controlling and constraining (Santoro, 2001).

The danger of this partial and atomistic approach to education is that it will promote knowledge imitation rather than the creation, which does not conform in today’s generation.  Therefore CBC is too old fashioned for the 21^st century (Smithers, 2010).

Rotermund (2009) pointed out that to be able to address this challenge the government officials, school administrators, teacher and trainers from compulsory and post-compulsory education that includes VET, should be “extremely aggressive” in curriculum change. Number of authors like Bowers (2006) and Wheelahan (2007) suggest the same idea while Gonczi’s (1996) thought is to liberalise VET.

LIBERAL VOCATIONALISM AS NEW VOCATIONALISM: AS A RESPONSE 

To produce a kind of worker needed in the Knowledge Age, VET needs to balance their curriculum by blurring the distinction between liberal and vocational education and embrace liberal vocationalism as a new vocationalism (Hodkinson, 1991).  Liberal vocationalism is described by Young (1988, as cited in Silver & Brennan, 1988) as an “alternative approach in reconceptualising vocationalism…based on Dewey’s belief that the best liberal education is vocational and the best vocational is liberal in a sense that is both complementary (p.197).”

This explanation is expounded by Iram and Shemida (1998 as cited in Scheitzer) stating that:

Liberal vocationalism is broader and extended, which encompasses studies selected from several disciplines, problem solving methods of instruction and training related to real-world problem, breadth of courses and outcomes; care with long term employment… (p.175)

Liberalising VET also means incorporating of hybrid course like science, reading, writing; and other general subjects like philosophy, mathematics, communication and technology.  This only implies that the alliance of liberal and vocational education will provide VET students foreground of knowledge skills that are critical, creative, innovative, productive and ethical.  This foreground of knowledge fosters creation of new knowledge, which is crucial to succeed in the complex world of globalisation.  Similarly, Gaspard (2009) said that liberal vocationalism is:

… a kind of education generates highly effective and specialised students with potential to become pioneers and leaders in their corresponding domains. Every university must choose its own formula and create its own version of equilibrium between both types of education, based on numerous factors (p.11).

For the same reason, Technological Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in China adapted liberal vocationalism and reengineered their curriculum to 80 percent theory and 20 percent practical from 50-50 approach (Lundval, 2000; McLean & Lai, 2009). China is considered as one of the best knowledge nations in the world. 

Liberal and Vocational Education is a Continuum

Liberal and vocational education is two different philosophies of education. As to Lewis’s (1996 as cited in Volk, 1995) point of view there are conflicting ideas between liberal and vocational education. But the Knowledge Age is looking for knowledge workers who possess all aspects of knowledge. That only indicates that now is the time to compromise those differences, cross the border of meanings, integrate the two and make a new one.  Although both liberal and vocational education is important, without each other they will be just a pluralistic or an atomistic, partial model of education.

Liberal Education is to Foundational/Explicit Knowledge

Liberal education is congruent to foundational/explicit knowledge that is important in attaining a global knowledge for global competition. It provides theory to explain what the phenomenon is and why that phenomenon exists while the know what and know why are two out of four knowledge needed to achieve the knowledge-based economy (OECD, 2006; Sanchez, 2000; Sang, 2002).

Although liberal education is always associated with intellectual works; its purpose is not to produce a genius or a scientist but to develop competent person (Adler, n.d.). It cultivates critical thinking, innovation, production, creativity and ethics—knowledge that is timeless, long-lasting and functional in any dilemmas brought by every generation.

That is why, despite liberal education has already been introduced in the primary and secondary education, liberal advocates insist that it is still lacking in the workforce that requires broad range of problem solving skill.  Gaspard (2009) expounds that in the global competition and knowledge-based economy, working world is attracted to workers that can “produce solid output efficiently”.  This indicates that labour market favours worker who has the ability to create a new knowledge because this kind of knowledge will lead to the company’s advancement.   “It is for this reason that liberal education plays a cutting edge role in the expansion, flourishing, and intertwining… it takes flexibility, versatility,” Gaspard (2002) added.

Manning (1999) pointed out that liberal education accommodates sense of individualism because it “can help them develop a worldview that informs their decisions about how to achieve what they are able to imagine. Job skills training alone cannot do that (p.15).”   Individualism relates to self-confidence, which is an important way to present one’s self in any job interview (Tafarodi, 1996). Moral principles in respect to culture, religion, work and professions known as ethics are also introduced in liberal education. 

In addition to this, the 21^st Century wherein skill mobilisation and migration is rampant necessitates an individual to embrace diversity and its only liberal education tackles it in a broadest manner. Liberal education offers an individual a chance to think about the nature of “complex world”. 

Vocational Education is to Applied/Tacit Knowledge

On the other hand, vocational education is the implementing part that turns theoretical knowledge into custom. It is synonymous with tacit knowledge that provides the know how and know who kind of knowledge.  Vocational way of learning confirms the effectiveness of the knowledge learned through liberal education and without it liberal education will forever be a theory.

Although, vocational knowledge is unrecognisable, it leverages the overall quality of liberal education by knowing how to put the theoretical knowledge into practice and knowing whom the certain theory is applicable (Smith, 2001). This is due to the fact that vocational education offers non-rational forms of knowledge like intuitions and emotions that gained through personal interaction with the environment (Ivona, n,d).  Likewise, Gaspard (2009) explains that technical education is “a procedural type of learning” that enables students in which they come to master the technical and practical implementations related to their field of study (p.9).”

In the intricacies brought by the new chapter of globalisation an individual must not just be theoretically educated, but one should also know how to reinvent himself and know who the right people to go with to succeed in the global knowledge competition, which some kind of learning that is never introduced in liberal learning.  But then again, without the liberal education, vocational learning remains ambiguous and irrational.

Integrating Research to VET Curriculum:  As a Way to Liberalise VET

To effectively integrate the liberal education to VET’s curriculum, a modified integrated course design must be used.  Integrated course design that stems from the interconnectedness between the traditional education and training and the increasingly complex world is defined by the International Curriculum for Higher Education (n.d.as cited in Gavelek, Raphael, Biondo, & Wang, 2000; Kovalik & Olsen, 1994; Lake, n.d.; Lapp & Flood,1994)  as the:

“solid response to …challenges by (a) facilitating the application of knowledge, (b) encouraging multiple disciplinary perspectives, (c) enhancing relationships between in-class content and out-of class realities, (d) encouraging depth and breadth in understanding complex issues, and (e) enhancing student engagement through experiential and active learning… (p.2).”

Integration is needed to avoid being pluralistic or atomistic and build a curriculum that is holistic. It can be done by introducing research to all certificate courses.  Research is not synonymous to problem-based learning wherein teacher will give problems to the learners, which the solution can be found on a pre-packaged module. Research is about generating new knowledge from an existing theory, which is transferrable so that others can produce their own findings.  In this manner, learning in VET will become collaborative, wherein teachers and students are all active participants.

Research is a multidisciplinary type of learning that covers almost all liberal education subjects like reading, writing, science, history, ethics and philosophy. Because of this, research gives in-depth explanations about the realities.  Recommendations from research activate application of knowledge.  In addition, research involves explicit and tacit knowledge that fosters foreground of knowledge skills consisting critical thinking, practical, creativity, production, innovation, and ethics.

Introducing research in VET also indicates that ample amount of theory must be shared to the learners. Having equipped with theories, learners can critically observe and participate on their workplace training while scrutinising its strength and weakness of the company.  Finding ways to solve the weakness in the workplace can be a basis for a ground-breaking knowledge—knowledge that is needed to excel in the global knowledge competition and establish a knowledge-based economy.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Global knowledge competition as well as the economic discourse of globalisation blurs the distinction between the liberal and vocational education.  The border fades, not because VET approach to education is better than its liberal counterpart; but for the fact that both bodies of knowledge are the determinant for personal and the nation’s success. 

Reid (2001, p. 10 as cited in Reid 1996) affirms this idea, stating that both liberal and vocational education is needed to be able “to participate fully in social world“. Without liberal education, VET’s approach to education is just atomistic.  The only way to make it holistic is to accommodate the liberal way of learning through integration. In this manner, students can freely and collaboratively share their new ideas.

This is possible through a research-oriented approach to all of the certificate courses. Research covers all higher form of liberal education like reading, writing, science, ethics, mathematics and logic.  Even plumbers, construction workers, miners and among others need to be exposed to that kind of knowledge. The working class comprises 65 percent of 11.4 million workers and the only way to be on top is to have a ground-breaking knowledge that will make a difference.

A kind of worker that is in demand in Knowledge Age is a knowledge worker who generates original ideas. Giving equal treatment to foundational and applied knowledge cultivates correctness action, weighs the pros and cons, gives intellectual balance and promotes innovative ideas (McGettigan & Messina, 2000 as cited in Dzuback). Creation of knowledge is a way to orchestrate change and not just follow change.

While it is true that learning by doing approach to education of VET is still functional, the fact remains that it is inadequate to supply a kind of worker that the 21^st Century globalisation that is looking for.  The dawning of Knowledge Era introduces new sphere of knowledge; and challenges VET to produce future knowledge workers. Insisting to use the established VET structure, which was created during the Industrial Age is an outdated approach to education (CRRI & CLRA, 2000; Smithers, 2010; Warner, 2006; Wood, 2003).

Just what Wood (2011 as cited in Florida, 2002; Friedman, 2005) stated, “any entity that does not support an environment that attracts, sustains and retains creative, imaginative, and globally resourceful individuals will eventually fall behind.”  To prevent this from happening, VET must recognise liberal vocationalism as new vocationalism and must start reconceptualising the competency-based curriculum.

REFERENCES

Bereiter, C. (1997, May). Liberal education in knowledge society. Paper Presented La Salle, Illinois. Retrieved from http://www.ikit.org.

Blaich, C., Chan, E. & Lynch, R. (2005). Defining liberal education.  Retrieved from Center of Inquiry Wabash College.

Carr, D. (n.d.).  The dichotomy of liberal versus vocational education: some basic conceptual geography.  Retrieved from http://www.ed.uiuc.edu

Smith, E. (2002). Training packages: Debates around a new curriculum system.. Issue in educational research. 12. http://www.iier.org.au.

Howard, J. (2007).  Curriculum development. Retrieved from http://org.elon.edu.

Bowers, H. (2006). Curriculum design in vocational education.  Fully refereed paper for the Australian Association for Research in Education Conference Adelaide. http://www.aare.edu.au/06pap/bow06172.pdf

Centre for Regional Research & Innovation (CRRI) University of Western Sydney &Centre for Research & Learning in Regional Australia (CRLRA). (2000).  The Knowledge Based Economy: A Review of the Literature. Retrieved from http://trevorcairney.com.

Chappell, C. (1998). Changing TAFE in new times. University of Technology Australian  Journal of Teacher. Education 23 (2) Retrieved from  Australian Journal of Teacher Education.

Chappell, C. (1998).  Teacher’s identities in new times faculty of education university of technology. (Master Thesis Abstract, University of Technology, Sydney). Retrieved from http://www.aare.edu.au.

Considine, M., Simon, M., Sheehan, P. et. al. (2001). The comparative performance of Australia as a knowledge nation:  Report to the Chifley Research Centre  Considine. Chifley Research Centre. Retrieved from http://eprints.vu.edu.au/15895/1/15895.pdf.

Cornford, I. (1995, November). Competency-Based Training: An Assessment of Its Strengths and Weaknesses by NSW Vocational Teachers. Paper presented at the AARE 25th Annual Conference Hobart, Australia. Retrieved from Australian Association of Research Organisation.

Drucker, P. (2009). Are teacher productive “knowledge workers?”. Retrieved from http://educationinnovation.typepad.com

Dusseldorp, T. (2009). Competing for Skills: Vocational Education and Training in the 21st Century”. Canada International Conference, Alberta . Retrieved from  Dusseldorp Skills Forum.

Gonczi A a& Hager P (2010), The Competency Model. In: Penelope Peterson, Eva Baker, Barry McGaw, (Editors), International Encyclopedia of Education.  8, pp. 403-410.  Retried http://www.andrewgonczi.com.au.

Gonczi, A. (1996). Reconpetualising competency-based education and training: with particular reference for education for occupation in Australia Doctor of philosophy. (Doctoral Dissertation, University of Technology, Australia). Retrieved from http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/dspace/bitstream/handle/2100/303/01

Gaspard, E. (2009). Liberal education, a way of life. Retrieved from American University of Beirut.

OECD (2004). Developing highly skilled workers Canada OECD.  Retrived from OECD Canada.

Haygel, P. & Hyland, T. (2003). Vocational education and the training development strategies. In  Blake, N.  et. al. (Eds). The blackwell guide to the philosophy to the philosophy of education. pp.281-288. Retrieved from Google Book.

 

Hwang, J. & Gerami, M. (2006).  Analyis of investment in knowledge inside OECD countries.  International Journal of Human and Social Studies, 1 (2), 99-100. Retrieved from Waset Org.

Hodkinson, P. (1991). Liberal education and the new vocationalism: A progressivism partnership. Oxford Review of Education. 1 (17). Retrieved from National Library of Austrialia [03054985].

Hjelmervik, O. (2001, February). Innovation in the knowledge-based economy: A process model for knowledge creation and sharing. OECD High-level Forum on Knowledge Management. Copenhagen, Dennmark. Retrieved from OECD.

International Council for Higher Education (n.d.).  Introduction to integration course design. Retrieved from ICHE.

Kell, P. (1997).  Across Borders and States of Globalising Education.  Education Australia. 36. pp. 6-8. Retrieved from University of Wollongong Online Resources.

Quinn, T.J. (n.d.).  The competency movement, applied linguistics and language testing: some reflections and suggestion for possible research agenda. Melbourne Papers in Language Testing. (55-56). Retrieved from Language Testing and Research Centre University of Melbourne.

Lewis, T. (1996). Accommodating Border Crossings. Journal of Industrial Teacher Education. 33 (2).  Retrieved from http://scholar.lib.vt.edu.

Malean, R. & Lai, A. (2009). The future of technical and vocational education and training: Global challenges and possibilities.  International Journal of Training Research. Retrieved from http://jtr.e-contentmanagement.com.

McGettigan, B. & Messina, J. (2000). Theory of Robert M. Hutchins. Retrieved from http://www.hent.org/world/rgn/integration.htm.

Sang, K.L. & Gibson, D. (2002, November). Towards knowledge-based economy in Korea. Int. J. Technology, Policy and Management. 2(3) 201-205.  Retrieved from University of Texas Publications.

Santoro, N. (2001). Teacher or trainer?: The shaping of teacher identity in adult education contexts. Retreived from http://www.aare.edu.au.

Song Seng, L. (2004, August). Vocational technical education and training: An international perspective.  International Symposium on Vocational Education-Challenges and Strategies. Suzhou, China. Retrieved from http://www.ite.edu.sg.

Schwalger, S. (1994). Competency based training: Opportunities for interactive multimedia. In C. McBeath and R. Atkinson (Eds), Proceedings of the Second International Interactive Multimedia Symposium, 499. Perth, Western Australia, 23-28 January. Promaco Conventions. http://www.aset.org.au/confs/iims/1994/qz/schwalger.html.

Smith, E. (2001).  Journal of Knowledge Management. 5 (4). Pp. 311-313. The role of tacit and explicit knowledge in the workplace. Retrieved from http://www.uky.edu.

Smither, A. (2010). So who will decide the curriculum now? Retrieved from http://www.independent.co.uk.

Tippelt, R. & Amoros, A.  (2003) Capacity Building International Germany Technological Cooperation, System Development and Management in Vocational Training Division. Retrieved from http://star-www.inwent.org/starweb/inwent/docs/Lehrbrief_01_engl.pdf

Vaile, M. (2000). Australia and knowledge economy. The Economist Intelligence Unit. Retrieved from Trade Minister.

Warner, D. (2006). Schooling for the knowledge era.Victoria, ACER Press.

Wheelahan, L. (2006, July).  Bernsteinian and realist synthesis to critique instrumental and constructivist theories of knowledge & learning’. Paper presented at 4th International Basil Bernstein Symposium,  Rutgers University, Newark, New Jersey.  Retrieved from Academia.

Wheelahan, L. (2002). How Competency-Based Training Locks the Working Class Out of Powerful Knowledge: a Modified Bernsteinian Analysis. Retrieved from Academia.

Wheelahan, L. (2004). What are the alternatives to the training packages? Retrieved from Academia.

Wood, J. (2003). Australia: an under performing knowledge nation. Journal Intellectual Capitall.  4 (2),  Pp 1-12. Resource University of Wollongong Online Resources.

Wood, V. (2011). Globalization and higher education: Eight common perceptions from university leaders.  Retrieved from Institute of International Education.